Organizational Skills Essay

Possessing or not possessing organizational skills can make all the difference between efficient and effective work and no work at all. It is vital to understand the tasks at hand with an understanding of how everything will be organized for the accomplishment of the tasks. The arrangement and management of space, time, and information are among the most important organizational skills. The work space can be organized by the use of theories of ergonomics. After all, the quality of the work setting could easily translate into the quality of work performed. Time management, on the other hand, is a skill of discipline that is learned better with practice. Dividing up time for a variety of tasks, all of which demand varying levels of attention on the part of an individual, is best performed when the individual organizes time around the different degrees of importance attached to projects. Knowledge management is yet another organizational skill that acts as a necessity in principled work practices. This organizational skill often requires a distribution of knowledge. By sharing pertinent facts with his or her supervisors, colleagues, assistants, or subordinates; a manager may easily delegate tasks to a number of people. A student may likewise decide upon the most significant theories to study after understanding the value of information before him or her (â€Å"Organizational Skills†). Organizational skills are for the young and the old, the employed as well as the unemployed persons. The above mentioned organizational skills are also taught unto children. There is one significant organizational skill, however, that children do not learn very soon – that of managing finances. This particular organizational skill is mainly for adults, who always need to organize how their moneys would be spent on goods and services according to their respective degrees of importance. Financial management is crucial in all activities (â€Å"Organizational Skills†). But, so are the remaining organizational skills.

Leader Of Choice: Tony Robbins Essay

Tony Robbins practices what he preaches. He knows fully well that as a well-known personality, he must recognize the diverse workforce with which he is working with. He has developed strategies for accelerated transformations of individuals from different cultures. These transformations are not only done during the training itself, but are carried on over the long haul of individual lives. For instance, he has joined forces with other therapists in building this strategy of continuing to address the needs of the diverse groups of people across cultures. Joining with Cloe Madanes, a well-known therapist, the Robbins-Madanes Center for Strategic Intervention creates training materials and programs aimed at diverse communities. Carrying the philosophy further, Robbins has focused attention not only on adults and businessmen, but also on children in their Council for Human Rights of Children at the University of San Francisco. This is a prestigious company that champions the rights of children all over the world. And if that is not enough, the company also recognizes, in essence, that many written defenses of the diverse cultures must highlight their programs because certain groups of people are denied access to aids and tools that would make them deserving of better positions because of their economic opportunities in life.  Therefore, Tony Robbins’ trainings are geared so that education can be given to these groups of people and integrated into the productive workforce. He has founded a nonprofit Anthony Robbins Foundation that provides assistance to the homeless, elderly and inner city youth as it feeds millions of people in nine countries every year through its international holiday â€Å"Basket Brigade.† He has given his seminars to a diverse group of people himself all over the world. Impacting the lives of nearly 50 million people, he and his company continues to reach out to all kinds of individuals. Equality in the full extent would be difficult to achieve especially considering the highly diverse cultural groups that comprise American society and the world at large.  Towards this end, Tony Robbins and his company serves as viable and sustainable channels in which the interests of people are upheld based on what is good for society in general utilizing the strategies he has developed.

Capital Structure Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Capital Structure - Assignment Example Perhaps the value of the firm does depend on how its assets, cash flows and growth opportunities are sliced up and offered to investors as debt and equity claims. There are surely investors who would be willing to pay extra for particular types or mixes of corporate securities. For example, investors cannot easily borrow with limited liability, but corporations provide limited liability and can borrow on their stockholders' behalf. There has been constant innovation in the design of securities and in new financing schemes. Innovation proves that financing can matter. If new securities or financing tactics never added value, then there would be no incentive to innovate (Myers 2001). Modigliani and Miller's (1958) theory is exceptionally difficult to test directly, but financial innovation provides convincing circumstantial evidence. The costs of designing and creating new securities and financing schemes are low, and the costs of imitation are trivial. (Fortunately, securities and financing tactics cannot be patented.) Thus temporary departures from Modigliani and Miller's predicted equilibrium create opportunities for financial innovation, but successful innovations quickly become "commodities," that is, standard, low-margin financial products. The rapid response of supply to an innovative financial product restores the Modigliani and Miller equilibrium. ... The Miller theory will be referred again in later parts of this paper. Corporate Taxation In 1977, Merton Miller revisited the issue of the impact of corporate taxation on the irrelevance propositions in a classic paper titled "Debt and Taxes" that shows perhaps better than any of his other papers how he could use arbitrage arguments to change how finance academics and practitioners understood how the world works (Miller 1977). In that paper, he pointed out that the tax advantage of corporate debt might be mostly if not completely illusory. Because interest on corporate debt is taxed as income for the holder of corporate debt, the interest paid on corporate debt must be high enough so that the after-tax income from holding corporate bonds is attractive relative to the income from equity which, when it accrues as capital gains, is taxed at a lower effective rate (Myers 2001). As a result, corporations get to deduct from their taxes interest payments but, because personal taxes on interest income are higher than on capital gains, the before-tax cost of capital on debt must be higher than on equity if investors are to hold debt (Stulz 2000). Interest is a tax-deductible expense. A taxpaying firm that pays an extra pound of interest receives a partially offsetting "interest tax shield" in the form of lower taxes paid. Financing with debt instead of equity increases the total after-tax dollar return to debt and equity investors, and should increase firm value (Myers 2001). Application of Taxation This present value of interest tax shields could be a very big number. Suppose debt is fixed and permanent, as Modigliani and Miller (1963) assumed, and that corporate income is taxed at the current 35 percent statutory rate.

Globalization and Local Cultures Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Globalization and Local Cultures - Research Paper Example Globalization has led to loss of cultural identity in the traditional society. Globalization has considerably threatened the local heritage because of westernization. The detached cultures are under threat in the contemporary society because of emerging issues of modernization. This is because modernization has fostered the decline of costs. The declining costs alter the experience of societies into a greater incorporation of varied cultural values. For instance, the information flow, increased advancement in technology and reduced communication cost has contributed to a global community. Wilson (2006) argues that the identity developed through the interaction process has become problematic because of ethnicity. The identity constructed in most cases to those people who travel beyond borders or interact through digital technologies contributes to conflicting issues among diverse cultures. The language expansion generates interaction plethora among varied nations in terms of variation s in policymaking, and it manipulates cultural identity.Globalization threatens the feasibility of locally manufactured products. The increased advancement in technology has contributed to cheap labor and high production of commodities that are competitive in the global market. This has threatened the locally manufactured products because globalization offers a welcoming entrance for many customers to access easily products that customers could not otherwise have. For instance, the new foreign products in the market are sold at cheaper prices.

The motivations of Chinese EFLs Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3750 words

The motivations of Chinese EFLs - Term Paper Example People who are fluent in English are given almost celebrity-like honor and value in countries where English is not the official language. The wide ranged usage of English throughout the world be it, mass media, education, Internet, business, tourism, technology and such other fields is what gives the language an authoritative appeal and command over the whole world. Acknowledging the importance of the English language, the government of every country needs to be capable of providing facilities for the children to learn this language. Thus, this is the reason why English is being taught in almost all countries. Therefore, it is the responsibility of the parents to get their children enrolled into schools that teach English. It also becomes the responsibility of these children to learn well and excel in their academics to make their parents feel proud and in turn, serve their nation by staying committed to their jobs, which obviously, would require English as the main language. Therefo re, for students to learn languages, other than their mother tongue, they need motivation. The paper at hand focuses on Chinese EFL students. These refer to the students who come from China and settle in America or other such countries where the official language is English, and study English as a foreign language. It also includes EFL students who reside in China itself. Studies show that China accounts for the â€Å"largest number of English language learners in the world† (Influence of Instrumental Motivation on EFL Learners in China and its Implication On TEFL Instructional Design 1). According to JUDY F. CHEN in his article called, Motivators That Do Not Motivate: the Case of Chinese EFL Learners and the Influence of Culture on Motivation, the Language learning theory has widely accepted the saying that language learners with superior levels of motivation will be superior achievers. Finding what composes motivation for those who learn the language in a variety of cultura l settings remains a significant and difficult task. Motivation study frequently centers on cultural circumstances that are not very different from European values and North American. Language learning motivation study outcomes have tended to support the supreme importance of integrative motivation, which was primarily described by Gardner and Lambert (1972) and the newer version by Shaaban and Ghaith. Integrative motivation is successful because language abilities are perceived as essential to participation in various social groups that employ the target language. Noels, Clement, Pelletier, and Vallerand (2000) make out the preeminent significance formerly granted to the orientation of integrative motivation, but also state that this can be the case only in particular socio-cultural circumstances. Integrative motivation is frequently contrasted by way of the more outwardly affected instrumental motivation (JUDY F. CHEN 2005). The students face a lot of problems in their everyday li fe in the educational institutions they attend. This is due to the fact that English is totally foreign to them until they go abroad. Thus, there arises a great need for these students to be motivated. This paper therefore addresses various problems that the Chinese EFL students face in learning English, the

Summary analyses respons Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Summary analyses respons - Essay Example The legacy has been privatized and the idea of public good has been forgotten. The Olympic legacy requires both the public and private sector’s participation to sustain. This will support those who do not pay their way, loss of a permanent athletics track, and making the folk who produce the sports clothing not the biggest winners in the Olympic Games. The audience includes the organizers of Olympic Games as well as the universities having the regeneration gurus. The fundamental purpose of the article was to convey that the Olympic Games take a lot of public money and benefit only the private sector, thus causing little improvement in the socioeconomic conditions of the boroughs. The article is a criticism of the Olympic Games’ effectiveness in addressing their intended purposes. I personally agree to the author of the article because the flow of money in the Olympic Games has historically been from the public towards the private sector, while the noble objectives have been largely

Is it right to suggest that Strategies are not worth the Paper they Essay

Is it right to suggest that Strategies are not worth the Paper they are Written On - Essay Example 7 – 8). Strategy innovation that challenges the existing models is the only way for new companies to succeed in the face of competition and enormous resource disadvantages. Without investigating how best to create money, it is unlikely that wealth creation will occur and growth may not necessarily the best way to go for all firms. Although managers may feel that delivering quality at the right price will deliver the desired results, it will be important for them to know how best to do this (Hamel, 1998, Pp. 7 – 8). Even if the competitive environment is changing rapidly, it still makes sense to try to understand the trends to decide how best to take advantage of these. Thus, although a need may exist to reinvent the practice of strategy, it will be wrong to suggest that strategy itself is worthless because deciding about how to achieve an end cannot be useless. Mintzberg (1987, Pp. 25 – 30) suggests that organisations need to set their direction and focus if they are to succeed and even though this idea emerged more than twenty years ago, it is still right today. It is likely that if the grand strategy for an organisation is correct, the performance will be superior compared to the case when no strategy is prepared and performance depends on chance. Although a focus on strategy may blind an organisation to the need for properly managing its operations, without a strategy it will be difficult to have properly focused operations. Strategy presents a focus, which results in a coordination of organisational activity in an attempt to achieve the optimal. Strategy encourages an organisation to appropriately acquire, organise and utilise resources. In addition, strategy... It should be obvious from the discussion presented in the essay that despite the fact that rapid change now presents greater demands on strategy formulation, it will be wrong to suggest that strategies are not worth the paper. However, because information is now readily available, collaboration is far more rapid and the business environment is global with global markets and customers shaping demand, strategy needs leadership, an emphasis on superior processes for formulation, an attention to detail and rigor, participation, inputs from trends and patterns, inputs from organisational learning and experience, optimal implementation and well-considered execution. Without an approach that emphasises the craft in strategy formulation, flawed strategy can present disasters for organisations. Now, strategy is a continuous and never-ending process rather than a one-off plan.

Health Care Reform and Nursing Profession Term Paper

Health Care Reform and Nursing Profession - Term Paper Example A study conducted by the World Health Organization (1999) revealed that the health care system in United States ranked 37th in overall performance and 72nd in overall level of health among 191 nations reviewed in the study. Again, according to the U.S. Census Bureau (2012), the number of people without health insurance coverage rose from 49.0 million in 2009 to 49.9 million in 2010. A recent study also revealed that more than 44,800 excess deaths occur annually in U.S. due to lack of insurance (Wilper, Woolhandler, Lasser, McCormick, Bor, & Himmelstein, 2009). These were the major driving factors that led to the release of the health care reform act, also called the patient protection and affordable care act or the PPACA. The U.S. Health care reform act extends healthcare coverage to nearly 32 million people by providing subsidies for people who cannot afford insurance on their own, developing consumer-friendly rules clamped on insurers, offering tax breaks and developing marketplace s to shop for insurance plans (Frellick, 2010). This act gives new opportunities to nurses to deliver care and play a vital role in leading change. It challenges nurses to do more to prevent diseases, provide chronic care management especially to the growing geriatric population and offer end-of-life care that focus on comfort and compassion. Following are some of the provisions in the healthcare reform that affect nurses: Reauthorization of Title VIII Nursing Workforce Development Programs The new healthcare reform reauthorized some of the major workforce development grant programs like advanced education nursing, workforce diversity grants, nursing education, practice and retention grants and nursing student and nurse faculty loan programs (Health Resources and Services Administration, n.d.). In 2010, $243 million was allocated towards Nursing Workforce Development Programs (Wood, 2011). These programs have been made available to promote nursing education through loan repayment an d scholarship programs and ensure that there are enough nurses to care for the growing healthcare needs in the future. These grant programs under the Public Health Service Act are the chief source of federal funding for nursing education (Frellick, 2010). Nurse-Managed Health Clinics The passage of the U.S. 2010 Health care reform act has resulted in the authorization of nurse-managed health clinics (NMHCs) which are nurse practice arrangements where advanced practice nurses serve as primary care providers, managers and administrators (Esperat, Hanson-Turton, Richardson, Debisette, & Rupinta, 2012). NMHCs provide health care services ranging from basic health promotion and disease prevention approaches to full service primary care including chronic disease management programs to the underserved populations and is associated with a school, college, university or department of nursing, federally qualified health center or an independent non-profit health or social service agency (Espe rat et al., 2012). These NMHCs provide a ‘safety net’ for medically underserved populations in crucial health care access points in areas where primary care physicians are in short supply (Frellick, 2010). In 2010, the Human Resources and Services Administration released $14.8 million in prevention fund dollars to support grants to 10 NHMCs, but this funding was not renewed in

Accounting Standards Boards Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Accounting Standards Boards - Essay Example This convergence was done in order to improve the two main US accounting principles i.e. IFRA and GAAP. China and Japan also worked in this coverage of two boards. In accordance with the 2010 reports, the Securities and Exchange Commission’s have issued a statement of global accounting standard and convergence in order to direct the SEC staff. This was done to make a work plan which should be used to incorporate IFRA standards in US financial reporting system (Colson, Robert H, 2003, p.22). A brief history on the relationship of these two boards is described below: Interest of international accounting began in 1950s due to the integration of World War II and due to the increase of capital flaws in the systems. An international congress of accountant was hosted by American Institute of Certified Public Accountants in 1962. It discussed the steps for the development of accounting, auditing and other reporting standards. The first textbook of international accounting was publishe d in 1967 which was written by a member of FASB. IASB and FASB relationship was informal one. But in 1988 FASB became a member of IASC which meant that FASB was able to participate in the meetings of IASC. In 1993 FASB and its counter party conducted a joint venture project. This resulted in the improvement of in the relationship and standards of these two boards. In 2000 use of international accounting standards increased rapidly due to which IASB and FASB decided to collaborate and explore US international standards. IASB and FASB finally decided to collaborate and work together in order to improve the US accounting standards. This partnership has been mentioned in â€Å"The Norwalk Agreement.† A memorandum of understanding was issued by both of the boards in 2006. It described the targeted performance they hope to achieve by 2008. In this MOA they shared their common objective with high quality accounting standards. Both the boards completed the first joint project and iss ued a converged accounting standard on business combination in 2007. FASB and IASB updated its memorandum of understanding in 2008 in order to establish convergence goals of 2011. FASB reported the status of their project in order to converge and improve UC GAAP accounting standards in 2010. First quarter congress report was issued by both the boards which reported modification of their joint work plan. A progress report was issued by both the boards in 2011. It reported the progress of the convergence work program. In this report it gave priority to the three main areas i.e. leasing, financial instrument and revenue recognition. 1.2 IASB equivalents of the FASB original pronouncements FASB and IASB mainly establish standards in relation to finance and accounting which helps nongovernmental organizations to prepare financial statements. FASB major pronouncement is to develop the principles of general accounting, while IASB focuses on international financial reporting analysis. This indicates that IASB is not equivalent of the pronouncements of the other board. There exists difference in the practices of both the boards. FASB uses a rule based approach, which differs from the principles of IASB; it focuses on techniques, processes and organization. In spite of these differences in the original pronouncement, both the boards have agreed to converge for the best interest of financial economy. This means that the main reason of the convergence was to set universal standards of accounting. In order to reduce these differences meetings were conducted by auditors to ensure the success of both the boar

Gwen Harwood Essay Essay Example for Free

Gwen Harwood Essay Essay Opportunities for an individual to develop understanding of themselves stem from the experiences attained on their journey through life. The elements which contribute to life are explored throughout Gwen Harwood’s poems, At Mornington and Mother Who Gave Me Life, where the recollection of various events are presented as influences on the individual’s perception of the continuity of life. Both poems examine the connections between people and death in relation to personal connections with the persona’s father or mother. By encompassing aspects of human nature and life’s journey, Harwood addresses memories and relationships which contribute to one’s awareness of life. Memories and meandering thoughts, related to personal experiences, are explored throughout At Mornington where the persona shifts between the past and present and dreams and reality. This is similar to Father and Child where Barn Owl is set in past test and Nightfall is set in the present, symbolic of appreciation and understanding of the complexities of life which the child learns. At Mornington opens with an evocation of an event from the persona’s childhood which establishes the temporary and ever changing nature of human life. Reflected through the shifts between past and present tense, the persona is attempting to use past experiences in order to appreciate the present and accept the future. The poem provides a reflective and personal point of view accompanied by the recurring motif of water which symbolises the persona’s transition from childhood to the acceptance of the inevitability of death. In the third stanza, the persona refers to a more recent past where she had seen pumpkins growing on a trellis in her friend’s garden. The action of the pumpkins is described as â€Å"a parable of myself† which allows the persona to reflect on the meaning and quality of her own life and existence. The metaphor between the pumpkin vine and the persona suggests that like the pumpkin, human life also ripens and matures before coming to a closure and returning to the earth. Supported by the phrase â€Å"candlelight for eyesight,† the reader is made aware of the transience of life that the persona has grown to accept and understand. In Father and Child, as the persona moves on from childhood, her father becomes elderly and is entertained by simple things in nature, â€Å"birds, flowers, shivery-grass. † These symbols of nature remind the persona of the inconsistency of life and the certainty of death, â€Å"sunset exalts its known symbols of transience,† where sunset represents time. Both poems are indicative of the impermanence of life and that the persona has managed to mature and grow beyond the initial fearlessness of childhood moving onto a sophisticated understanding of death. The connection between life and death is expressed in a different way through Mother Who Gave Me Life, a poem of mourning for the dead. The poem can be seen as a personal farewell to the persona’s mother where the dominant images of the poem show evolution and the passing of time. Father and Child also demonstrates the passing of time as the persona moves from the innocence of childhood to the sadness of her father’s advancing age and inevitable passing. In Mother Who Gave Me Life, the reference to Halley’s Comet, which appears only once every seventy-six years, tells the reader that the mother was unable to see it once more before surrendering to death. The direct speech of the Sister is reported without the use of quotation marks as in, â€Å"When she died she was folding a little towel. † This provides readers with the knowledge that the mother addressed in the poem is dead. Without quotation marks, the flow of the poem is maintained and is therefore more easily absorbed into the texture of the poem. The parallel image of the â€Å"fabric of marvels† being reduced to the â€Å"little towel† raises the notion that whilst death may have brought a physical end to the persona’s mother’s life she remains a marvel of creation as the persona’s memories of her live on. The poem ends with the ‘fine linen’ recalling the memories of a typical childhood scene where the persona’s mother is calling for her to have dinner â€Å"as darkness falls on my father’s house. † This biblical reference to the House of the Lord, combined with the coming of darkness, reminds the reader of the inevitable ending of life and the respective movement into heaven. As the second section of Father and Child draws to a close, it is evident that the persona has grown to understand that she has limited time left with her father. The significance of Nightfall as the title of the second section, when considering the daybreak setting of Barn Owl, reinforces this. Sunrise symbolises youth whilst nightfall, in comparison, suggests an ending which implies death, a concept that the adult persona is beginning to acknowledge it as part of life. A particular instance in life can conjure different memories of the past as in At Mornington where the persona is drawn into recollections of childhood experiences with her father while standing by the graveside of her friend’s parents. A positive image of the father and child relationship is conveyed throughout the poem as in, â€Å"secure in my father’s arms. † This image conveys safety, comfort and protection which assists the persona in moving on and accepting the cycle of life. It is the security which stems from this relationship that enables the persona to mature from the perceptions and thoughts maintained as a child. Insight into the relationship between the persona, as both child and adult, with her father is also demonstrated in Father and Child. The dominance of the father is suggested through his imperative tone, â€Å"End what you have begun. † Despite the power-play in their relationship, there is still a sense of closeness, â€Å"I leaned my head upon my father’s arms. † This connection has enabled the persona to mature and grow through experiences. This personal relationship is also evident in Mother Who Gave Me Life where the imagery of light shows the persona realises the importance of her mother as she walks â€Å"in the light of the living. † This suggests that the persona is able to walk amongst the living due to her mother. The affirming experiences and enlightenment provided by this relationship enables the persona to see the life-giving role of women as part of the cycle of life. All the poems comment on an individual’s relationship with their mother or father which is essential in maturing and evolving as an individual. The relationships conveyed enable the persona to gain an understanding of life whilst considering its value and accepting its cycle. Ultimately, the exploration of memory and relationships with the persona and their father or mother enables an individual to comprehend human nature and the links between life and death. Throughout the poems At Mornington and Mother Who Gave Me Life, Harwood shows the reader, through memories and comparisons, different aspects of life which contribute to what it means to be human.

Informal Groups within an Organisation

Informal Groups within an Organisation Abstract Organisations contain formal groups which have been put into place by the organisational management to perform specific tasks in order to further the aims of the organisation. In addition to the formal groups, there are informal groups which can assume an existence in organisations as a result of the mutually shared interests of the individuals who are a part of the organisation. Informal groups exist purely because of mutual interests and have no formal mandate from the organisation. The membership of the informal groups seeks to satisfy some need by belonging to these groups. These needs may include needs for security, knowledge acquisition, informal attempts to shape organisational policy, family, social interaction etc. Leadership position in such groups is freely accorded by the group membership based on qualities that are considered to be critical for the satisfaction of the needs of the moment, with changing needs resulting in changes of leadership. Informal groups in formal o rganisations can be powerful and important because they have the capability of supporting or opposing organisational aims. Organisational managers should attempt to acquaint themselves with the informal groups in their areas of jurisdiction so that informal discussions with these groups may be possible and attempts may be made to change their norms if they prove to be contrary to the organisational aims. Informal groups can be found in any organisational setting including clubs, schools, health care units, industries etc. The motives behind their formation are a part of human nature and it should not be necessary to excessively interfere in the activities of informal groups unless they are proving to be destructive. In this essay, an attempt has been made to take a look at informal groups in organisations with a special emphasis on the informal groups to be found in a hospital ward. 1.1 Introduction Organisations exist in order to perform useful functions or tasks which will generate revenues or provide a service. In order to achieve organisational missions, teams may be established within the organisation which are organised around a set of objectives. A team or a group is, therefore, considered to be a number of people who have been brought together as a result of a desire to perform some function or accomplish a set of objectives. Groups and teams are formally created in order to provide a remedy for the dysfunction of bureaucratic structures that may be present in an organisation. Segmentation in organisations results in large problems being cut into sub – problems which are then cut into even smaller problems. These problems are then allocated to sub – units or components of sub-units which offer inputs to the problems or tasks and the solution to the whole consists of these inputs. Specially created groups within organisations may horizontally cut across exis ting boundaries and functions existing within organisations in an attempt to take advantage of lateral linkages. A management team or group with lateral linkages can therefore be created by the corporate management in order to better manage the organisation. Such groups which have been created as a result of the design choices and the development processes in an organisation are different from the informal groups which almost always come into existence in organisations if opportunities exist. The informal groups which can come into being within organisations can come about as a result of common interests, desire to learn and share knowledge and achieve specific objectives. These groups can also act to counter organisational function and the imposed standards of management. Standards of the informal groups are the standards of the group members which have not been imposed on them by anyone and certainly not by the organisational management. The leaders of the informal groups in organ isations will have power within the groups which can oppose the formal directives of the organisation or the organisational managers. Hence, it is important to realise that informal groups do exist within organisations and that they have an implicit code of ethics or an unspoken set of standards. In order to positively harness the power of the informal groups, it is important to understand group dynamics and to bring about changes in the informal group norms so as to support the formal organisation. [Arndt 1997]; [Onepine.Info 2005] The terms groups and teams are often used interchangeably and are important concepts in management literature. Groups can be found almost anywhere including schools, work organisations, families, and hospitals as well as in sports clubs. As opposed to a group, a team is expected to have some positive attributes to it. A team will have cohesion, cooperation and teamwork and groups are expected to develop into teams. A team is, therefore, a special type of group which has became sufficiently organised in order to fulfil a mission or a purpose. A group can consist of more then one individuals capable of interacting with each other who are aware of their membership within a group as well as their positive interdependence as they strive to achieve mutual goals. Although members of the group are most likely to have face-to-face interactions most of the time, they can also have interactions over the internet or other media once the group has been formed and members are known to each other. Informal groups will have communication processes which are smoother and less cumbersome then those of the formal organisation. Leadership status is mostly afforded to members who have access to information vital to the functioning of the group or the ability to distribute this information. Whereas formal groups come into existence as a result of organisation design, task allocation and decision making which result in communications and team learning, informal groups are formed as a result of mutually shared interests and are led by members with a strong commitment to the cause. Informal groups can provide a sense of belonging with friendship, support and affiliation along with a sense of identity as well as self esteem for its members. Informal groups can also serve as defence mechanisms for forces that can be too great for a single individual to resist and may also serve as a platform to develop a consensus amongst members about issues which can also be related to the organisation and which may have been regarded as being controversial. The members in an informal group can feel more secure, less anxious and more capable of facing threats such as the cruel behaviour of a supervisor. The leadership of the informal group mostly belongs to the member who is most capable of satisfying the needs of the group and this leadership changes with changing requirements and the ability to cater for the requirements of other members. Because the informal leader does not possess formal powers, therefore, the informal leader can be deposed if this leader cannot adequately satisfy the requirements of the members. Because the cohesiveness of the informal groups can be enhanced in the face of external threats, attempts to force a group to conform to organisational norms can backfire and it may be better to try and neutralise the group leader or to conduct reasonable dialogue. Informal groups can have norms, values and unspoken rules which may be necessary to perpetuate the exis tence of the group and in some groups violations of these rules or norms can carry severe penalties. Although informal groups become important and noticeable because they start to challenge the formal organisation, it must however, be realised that not all informal groups in organisations are harmful and some may in fact be serving a useful purpose such as knowledge sharing, helping members cope, generating ideas or pursuing hobbies. Apart from the work floor, informal groups can also exist as ‘communities of practice’ amongst professionals who are informally sharing knowledge, pursuing design excellence or in other ways controlling and generating knowledge or skills in an organisation. [Accel-Team.com 2005]; [Rupert 2004]; [Fiona 2004] Informal groups in organisations arise as a result of the interpersonal relationships of the members of a formal organisation and there are formal leaders who have authority because of the existence of a formal organisation as well as informal leaders who may be given deference by the employees because they have been able to assist in the satisfaction of some of their needs. Some of the leaders of informal groups or the ‘workers of influence’ can hold rather ordinary positions in the formal organisations but can be a force to be reckoned with because of their leadership of the informal organisation even though this leadership may be temporary or in transition. Without any formal mandate, leadership in the informal group may be based on knowledge, past services, seniority, personality attribute and the art of inducing compliance, a power relationship, the desire for the achievement of a goal or the emerging result of group interactions. Generally, groups do not act becaus e there are leaders but they acquire leaders to help them act. In a fee environment, the leader of the informal group will be the individual who will have a reciprocally rewarding relationship with the rest of the group. However, just like any other leader, the leader of the informal group will have a guiding vision, enthusiasm and a passion for action, integrity, maturity, knowledge, candour, trust, curiosity and daring. The reason why an informal group leader may not have succeeded in the organisation’s formal management structure could be due to a lack of formal qualifications or money and they may be perceived to be belonging to a different ‘class’ which is distinct from the formal managerial core. Power in the informal groups is vested by the peers and informal group leadership has influence over their members as well as the capability to exert an influence over managerial decision making. Hence, an informal organisation exists in parallel to the formal orga nisation and there is informal status that can be conferred on members of the organisation as distinct from the formal status in an organisation [Sandra 2004]; [Onepine.Info 2005] The development of formal as well as informal groups can be described in terms of Tuckman’s five-stage model consisting of the stages of forming or the process of group formation, storming in which individual search and conflicts occur, norming or the normalising of relationships between group members, performing during which peak group activity takes place and adjourning a stage when group members leave and are replaced by others. At the informal group level, where personal relationships are more significant, factors related to sociometry or the science within psychodrama may influence the informal relations between actors apart from considerations related to gain or protection from threats. The basic notion behind sociometry is the flow of feelings which can attract or repel individuals to each other and this is used to explain the inner structures of groups which also have an outer structure. The outer structure of a group may not fulfil the needs of the group members altho ugh such a structure will reflect the decision and responsibility structure of the group and attention should also be placed on relationships of attraction between members without which a group can loose its creative life. In a hospital ward, for instance, the formal structures consist of the nursing supervisors who are in charge of the ward and the doctors, but there is an element of interaction between the patients who are all in the ward because they have a need to get well and be looked after while they try to achieve this aim. There are no formal groups which have been put in place by the administration in a ward, but patients will tend to form informal groups because of their likes and dislikes as well as a need to cope with and survive their experience of ill health and get better. These informal groups will lend support to the members, help them when they need assistance, guide new members and may also take a stand against the formal administration of the ward consisting of the nurses and the doctors on duty if the interests of their members are threatened. [Diana 1996]; [Arndt 1997]; [Nathan 2004] In this essay, an attempt has been made to take a look at perspectives associated with informal groups within organisations and to consider the dynamics of such informal groups. An emphasis has been placed on attempting to understand the dynamics of informal groups by considering the situation in a hospital ward in which patients have been placed because of a joint need to get well and informal groups are formed in order to satisfy the needs of members. 2.1 The Development of Informal Groups in Organisations When creating formal groups in organisations, attempts are, or should be made to bring together individuals who are capable of harmoniously interacting with each other so that the group which has been created to accomplish a task can work at peak efficiency. In informal groups which are created spontaneously and not by an organisational dictate, the self interest of the individual members and a likeness for each other is what keeps the group together. Jacob L. Moreno (1892 – 1974) was the first to attempt to analyse group interactions using psychodrama and sociodrama, which are role playing techniques, in an attempt to analyse interpersonal relations. Members of the group will interact with each other and the behaviour of the group will have a tendency to modify the behaviour of the individual members, as was observed by Kurt Lewin (1890-1947). Most informal groups are controlled through leadership and the group discipline is maintained through internal pressure. In most infor mal groups, there is a respect for the individual and all members can participate in deciding things which are affecting them. However, once rules have been made, disobedience in certain groups can carry heavy penalties. Prison gangs are also a form of a group in which force and terror is used by the informal prison organisation to make members join and the penalty for disobedience can be very heavy. Hence, it is important for formal authorities to ensure that informal groups operating in an organisation are operating in a healthy and constructive manner with any conflict with the established authority lying within manageable and legal limits. Extreme behaviour in a group should be of concern to the law enforcement authorities and the group can no longer be described as an informal group. The humanist philosophy of Abraham Maslow (1908 – 1970) suggests that individuals are motivated by a dynamic hierarchy of needs including psychological, safety, love, esteem and self-actuali zation, with individuals moving up or down the ladder in order to satisfy their needs as best as possible. These needs of individuals are what keep informal groups together and in a hospital ward situation, the patients form informal groups in order to satisfy these wants. Responsibility, recognition and opportunities for growth along with opportunities for self actualization which cannot be satisfied in the formal organisation because of the specialisation of labour and command / obey directives as well as the control of activities are amongst the reasons why individuals in an organisation may want to join informal groups. According to Douglas McGregor (1906 -64), the average individual does not dislike work and has an acute interest in attempting to present solutions for organisational problems which can also motivate individuals to form informal groups. The strict division of labour in a formal organisation without the participation of the organisational members and the resulting dissatisfaction can also lead to the creation of informal groups in which members can participate and which have the capability to provide stronger inputs to the formal organisational hierarchies. There are many other evolving needs such as those involved with safeguarding the family, the community and the self in a hostile or alien ambiance which can cause individuals to form informal groups. Examples of such tendencies may include groups formed by expatriate workers or their spouses in foreign lands. [Arndt 1997]; [Malcolm 2000]; [Tim 2001]; [Betty 1997] In formal groups, there is a greater emphasis on task or goal-oriented activities which aim to get the job done rather then the maintenance-oriented activities which involve creating a good atmosphere, creating social-relationships and the general happiness as well as a state of well being for the members. The emphasis on task-oriented activities rather then the maintenance-oriented activities, however, does not mean that the maintenance-oriented activities are irrelevant. In fact every group tries to find a balance between the two and in a formal group, neglecting the maintenance-oriented activities can mean that the overall group starts to malfunction or a member who may be quite proficient at doing the job is not much of a success any longer. In an informal group, maintenance-oriented activities can be more important then they are in a formal group, although informal groups do have broad aims behind their creation. [Arndt 1997]; [Thomas 2004] All groups including informal groups exhibit a state of dynamism with new members arriving, getting accepted into the group, coming to terms with their status within the group, contributing and then leaving because they have found new places to go to or have developed new interests. Members must, however, have a reason to become a part of an informal group and most often the reason is that they have to be in the organisation to satisfy their economic wants or have been put into a situation or a place in which joining the local group can be beneficial. As new members of an organisation arrive on the scene, they are exploring and finding meanings in the new environment. Initial social contacts are limited and mostly existing members of the informal group will sound out the new arrivals, offer clarifications and provide support. In the forming stage of the group, dependency is rather high and the group leadership may want to exploit the situation in order to induct new members. In the s torming stage, the new individual member will start to exert their individuality and begin to come to terms with other members of the group and the group’s values as well as mode of operation. Personal conflicts can occur as differences in the roles and personalities of members are resolved. There can be competitions over status and positions as well as roles and responsibilities. A hostile environment can develop with members coming to term with reality. The position and the role of the informal group leaders and hierarchy may be questioned by the new arrivals but a realisation may sink in that there are benefits to be attained by the individual as well as the group because the members cannot all leave immediately. Dialogue, facilitation, coaching as well as discovery may take place as the group moves towards normalcy. In the norming stage, a level of understanding between members will develop after the new information and facts have been processed with an acceptance of the differences. Cooperative patterns will start to emerge in the group which are broadly acceptable and members will start discussing issues and making decisions on consensus. Tensions which had existed will start to disappear as group cohesion grows, although feelings of disenchantment may occur as a reaction towards authority of the formal organisation and the group leadership. The group members will try to become independent and adjust the norms of the group to be broadly suited to all and there may be a tendency to attack the group leadership in order to bring in greater democracy. [Arndt 1997]; [Robert 2002] The group will tend to move towards performing in line with its broad aims after the process of normalisation and will carry on with its day to day existence. The group members will have settled into their roles and will be valued for their talents and the contributions that they may be able to make to the group. Ways of improving the situation and enhancing the levels of happiness for all may be pondered on and implemented along with ways to neutralise any threats. Individual members may move towards building up better relationships with others in the group that they like. Excitement may once again enter into the group as a result of new members joining and some old members leaving because they have to move to new places that are located far from the place where a group is functioning. Adjournments from the group may be marked with rituals such as a dinner, a drink or a last conversation, with some members looking back while others looking towards their future. Departure of old memb ers and the induction of new members can move the group into an earlier stage in its dynamics with members coming to terms with new realities, roles and changes in the group composition. Loss of some departed members may be deeply felt and certain new members can be very refreshing, bringing in new ideas and to challenges to the group norms. [Onepine.Info 2005]; [Arndt 1997] 3.1 Sociometry at Work in Informal Group Interactions Interpersonal relationships in a group are important because they enable individuals in a group to perform their function and contribute to the objective of the group. Poor relationships in any group can cause a gulf to develop between the members or the group leaders and between members resulting in poor performance. Members may leave groups in which there are poor interpersonal relations or they may want to keep away from the activities of such groups. In formal groups, absenteeism, sick leave and poor work attitude may be the result of poor interpersonal relationships while an informal group can disintegrate in such a situation. Tele or the two-way flow of feeling, as distinct from empathy or transference which are one-way flow of feelings is the basis of individuals forming relationships and coming together to pursue common aims. Individuals are drawn together spontaneously by common motives in order to achieve certain aims. The forces of mutual attraction can be constantly chang ing within a group with individuals coming closer on the basis of various criteria. Hence, there are likely to be a number of constantly changing sub-groups within a group, with the group being kept together by a stronger common goal. The forces of tele may determine who may be found sitting to whom, the person whose advice is sought on problems and the member who is seen to be providing the leadership in a group. Members in a group may have relationships based on dependency, mutual respect and pairing or indecisive fight or flight type relations with a group’s leadership. The identity of an individual within a group will contain identities from many other groups including identities related to family, profession and place of residence, previous affiliations related to education, employment or membership of clubs as well as any special experiences including those related to culture. Individuals who are thinking of forming stronger affiliations with a group will be asking them selves questions related to inclusion as well as identity, control, influence, power and acceptance as well as intimacy. Attempts will be made to determine what an individual can become in a group, how much influence or control an individual may be able to exercise and if the individual will be liked and respected. Based on the answers to these questions and the alternatives that are likely to be available, the individual will form a relationship with a group. If a member’s expectations related to the group are responded to positively then greater energy is likely to result, alternatively anxiety and preoccupation with the self and a lack of interest may be the result of thwarted expectations. Strong group cohesion is likely if individuals are drawn to each other as a result of more then one factors of common interest which are enduring and not of transitory nature. Cohesion is demonstrated by spontaneity, sincerity and enthusiasm. Observing and analysing the affection, trust and advice networks in a group can assist in the determination of what is going on in a group and who is likely to be able to influence group behaviour and values. Such knowledge can be useful if the formal organisation wants to change the behaviour patterns of an informal group to be less damaging or supportive of the aims of the formal organisation. [Diana 1996]; [Robert 2002]; [John 1998] In a formal organisation, it is the informal networks of working relationships and the informal groups which can have a bearing on productivity and resistance to change. Managers must, therefore, try to keep the informal organisation in mind when implementing change and making decisions. It is important to know the key members of informal groups and have some sort of a dialogue and channels of communication open with them so that discussions based on reason may be initiated if there is a need to change some behaviour patterns. Misunderstandings, a lack of communication and dissatisfaction with some decisions of the formal organisational managers and their way of working can result in the informal network attempting to work in a manner that is contrary to the interests of the formal management and the organisation. Indications that this is happening may manifest itself in the form of apathy, a lack of interest in work and communications with the formal managers. Members of the informa l groups may try to conduct secret discussions in order to try and find a solution and there can be a sense of disillusionment with the organisation. Such wars are usually not healthy either for the organisation or the workers and the formal organisation can try to conduct a dialogue with the informal organisation in order to discus and explain matters which may improve the situation. [Cristiano 2004]; [Diana 1996]; [David 2001]; [John 1998] Some informal groups in an organisation may not have aims which are contrary to the interest of the organisation. Informal groups of professionals who may want to enhance their knowledge, knowledge workers, managers, sports and hobby groups etc can actually greatly benefit the organisational capabilities as well as prestige. Such groups can also assist the organisation by furthering their skills and using these skills to assist organisational aims such as those related to product design, management, marketing, sales etc. The formal organisation may choose to assist such groups within the resources that are available to the organisation. [Kristina 1999]; [Andrew 2004]; [John 1998] In the next section, an attempt is made to study the dynamics of informal groups in a hospital ward. Such a study can be instructive because a hospital ward is likely to be a place where the most idealised informal group formation is possible with there being a possibility of far fewer harsh forces at work in the hospital ward as compared to other settings. 4.1 Informal Groups in a Hospital Ward Treating and caring for the ill can be a challenging occupation and depending on the nature of the ward being considered, there can be a certain level of tension between the hospital staff and the patients. The nurses in the ward are more directly involved with the patients and come in contact with them far more often. The doctors are the senior managers of the formal hierarchy and remain relatively distant from the action whereas the patients and informal groups made up by the patients is the informal organisation. A children’s ward is the place where there is a minimal level of tension between the formal organisation and informal organisation consisting of the relatives of the sick kids. The kids themselves are too young to be making rational informal groups. Caring for the mentally ill or for adult patients in a depraved economic environment can result in serious frictions being generated between the ward staff and the groups formed by patients. Mentally ill patients can be very demanding while the adult patients may not be receiving the proper care in a depraved hospital because of a lack of resources. The circumstances presented in the novel Cancer Ward by Alexander Solzhenitsyn are instructive in this regard. [Valerie 2000]; [Harborne 1996]; [Sandford 1990]; [Ann 2004] In most hospitals, however, a genuine attempt is made to care for the patients and depending on the formal culture which has been cultivated as a result of the policies of the senior medical staff of the hospital, the relationship between the formal ward organisation and the patients tend to be friendly and cooperative. Informal groups consisting of patients, however, do spring up because there is a need to be helpful and be helped, pass time, converse and help each other to face the common enemy, the illness, as well as any other threats which may present themselves including the attitude of the ward staff. [Harborne 1996]; [Sandford 1990]; [Ann 2004] The arrival of a new patient generates an interest amongst the existing members of the ward and as the new arrival is investigated by the ward patients, the process of the forming of a new group starts. The newly arrived patient in the ward will initially be assisted by the formal ward staff or the nurses and will slowly get to know the other patients. The leaders of the informal patient groups may also express an interest and assist in the resettlement of the newly arrived, gathering information and making an assessment of the new patient. The formal ward administration will know much more about the patient because they will have their particulars and medical records Any factors in common between two patients in the ward including similar medical conditions, close neighbourhoods, cultural experiences or professional background etc will lead to an attraction or tele between two individuals which can assist in the formation of an informal group. An attraction or tele can also exist be tween a patient and a member of the formal organisation such as a nurse if there are any common backgrounds or interests. Norming of the ward takes place when the newly arrived patient starts to fit into the new environment and slowly gets to know the other members. In the storming phase, there may be personality clashes or debates about ward regulations and perhaps attempts to deliberately flout any regulations of the ward such as restrictions on smoking or meeting with others as a result of the attempts by the new members to personalise the ward space. The performing stage occurs with ward members settling down and helping each other while trying to get better. Sub-groups will be constantly formed and re-formed as the process of discovery continues and mutual interests shift. A member who has been through trying times, undergone a painful procedure or an operation may be given extra attention by the group as a whole and especially by those who have a strong attraction or tele with this member. The nursing staff, doctors, the senior medical staff as well as the administrators can judiciously intervene by conducting a dialogue and reasoning to keep the situation in the ward under control in order to maintain healthy relationships amongst the patients as well as between the patients and the ward staff. The ward group is adjourned with the departure of a patient and ritual farewell meetings or exchange of gifts may take place for those who have recovered, while some ritual mourning and remembrance will be present for those who may not have recovered. Informal groups in a ward can act in a protective manner towards their members, the patients, while collectively standing up against threats or the unreasonable behaviour of the ward staff. Occasionally, an informal group of patients may threaten the discipline of the ward and the formal medical staff will have to find ways to bring this group in greater harmony with the aims of the hospital and the ward. [Valerie 2 000]; [John

Emotional Inteligence Essay -- Emotional Intelligence

An increasing percent of the population begins to know the idea of emotional intelligence. This concept was firstly developed by two American university professors, John Mayer and Peter Salovey (1990) and they concluded that, people with high emotional quotient are supposed to learn more quickly due to their abilities. Another psycologist named Daniel Goleman (1995) extended the theory and also made it well-known. In his articles and books, he argued that people with high emotional quotient do better than those with low emotional quotient. In this essay, it will be argued that high emotional intelligence can influence work performance positively to a relatively high extent. Both benefits and limitations of a high level of EI in the workplace will be discussed and a conclusion will be drawn at the end of this essay. The definition of emotional intelligence given by Salovey and Mayer (1990) focuses on the ability to understand one’s own and others’ emotions and also to manage one’s own emotions positively. On the other hand, Goleman’s definition (1995) covers more aspects, including 25 abilities and skills such as trustworthiness, communication and empathy. The former definition is more scientific and appropriate while the latter one is called the ‘corporate definition’ because its contents accommodate the interests of large corporations. However, the academic findings of the two professors are not widely known while Goleman’s edition is commonly accepted due to his best-seller book ‘Emotional Intelligence’ (Goleman 1995). The following essay will be mainly based on Goleman’s definition. High emotional intelligence can improve work performance and its varied aspects can contribute to work differently. One aspect of emotion... ...igence: Isses in Paradigm building, The emotionally intelligent workplace: how to select for, measure, and improve emotional intelligence in individuals, groups, and organizations, Jossey-Bass Ch.2 Goleman D.(2001) An EI-based theory of performance, The emotionally intelligent workplace: how to select for, measure, and improve emallenge emotional intelligence in individuals, groups, and organizations, Jossey-Bass Ch.3 Fernandez-Araoz C.(2001) The challenge of hiring senior executives, The emotionally intelligent workplace: how to select for, measure, and improve emallenge emotional intelligence in individuals, groups, and organizations, Jossey-Bass Ch.6 Arnold J., Silvester J., Patterson F., Robertson I., Cooper C. and Burnes B. (2005) Work Psychology: Understanding Human Behaviour in the Workplace 4th edition, Pearson Education Limited Essex

Relationship Between Strings and Spacetime Geometry :: essays research papers

If string theory is a theory of gravity, then how does it compare with Einstein's theory of gravity? What is the relationship between strings and spacetime geometry? Strings and gravitons The simplest case to imagine is a single string traveling in a flat spacetime in d dimensions, meaning that it is traveling across space while time is ticking, so to speak. A string is a one-dimensional object, meaning that if you want to travel along a string, you can only go forwards or backwards in the direction of the string, there is no sideways or up and down on a string. The string can move sideways or up and down in spacetime, though, and as the string moves around in spacetime, it sweeps out a surface in spacetime called the string worldsheet, a two-dimensional surface with one dimension of space and one dimension of time. The string worldsheet is the key to all the physics of the string. A string oscillates as it travels through the d-dimensional spacetime. Those oscillations can be viewed from the two-dimensional string worldsheet point of view as oscillations in a two-dimensional quantum gravity theory. In order to make those quantized oscillations consistent with quantum mechanics and special relativity, the number of spacetime dimensions has to be restricted to 26 in the case of a theory with only forces (bosons), and 10 dimensions if there are both forces and matter (bosons and fermions) in the particle spectrum of the theory. So where does gravity come in? If the string traveling through spacetime is a closed string, then the spectrum of oscillations includes a particle with 2 units of spin and zero mass, with the right type of interactions to be the graviton, the particle that is the carrier of the gravitational force. Where there are gravitons, then there must be gravity. Where is the gravity in string theory? Strings and spacetime geometry The classical theory of spacetime geometry that we call gravity consists of the Einstein equation, which relates the curvature of spacetime to the distribution of matter and energy in spacetime. But how do the Einstein equations come out of string theory? If a closed string is traveling in a curved spacetime, then the coordinates of the string in spacetime feel this curvature as the string propagates. Relationship Between Strings and Spacetime Geometry :: essays research papers If string theory is a theory of gravity, then how does it compare with Einstein's theory of gravity? What is the relationship between strings and spacetime geometry? Strings and gravitons The simplest case to imagine is a single string traveling in a flat spacetime in d dimensions, meaning that it is traveling across space while time is ticking, so to speak. A string is a one-dimensional object, meaning that if you want to travel along a string, you can only go forwards or backwards in the direction of the string, there is no sideways or up and down on a string. The string can move sideways or up and down in spacetime, though, and as the string moves around in spacetime, it sweeps out a surface in spacetime called the string worldsheet, a two-dimensional surface with one dimension of space and one dimension of time. The string worldsheet is the key to all the physics of the string. A string oscillates as it travels through the d-dimensional spacetime. Those oscillations can be viewed from the two-dimensional string worldsheet point of view as oscillations in a two-dimensional quantum gravity theory. In order to make those quantized oscillations consistent with quantum mechanics and special relativity, the number of spacetime dimensions has to be restricted to 26 in the case of a theory with only forces (bosons), and 10 dimensions if there are both forces and matter (bosons and fermions) in the particle spectrum of the theory. So where does gravity come in? If the string traveling through spacetime is a closed string, then the spectrum of oscillations includes a particle with 2 units of spin and zero mass, with the right type of interactions to be the graviton, the particle that is the carrier of the gravitational force. Where there are gravitons, then there must be gravity. Where is the gravity in string theory? Strings and spacetime geometry The classical theory of spacetime geometry that we call gravity consists of the Einstein equation, which relates the curvature of spacetime to the distribution of matter and energy in spacetime. But how do the Einstein equations come out of string theory? If a closed string is traveling in a curved spacetime, then the coordinates of the string in spacetime feel this curvature as the string propagates.

A foodborne disease that is estimated to have infected one third of the human population Essay

Toxoplasmosis is a foodborne disease that is estimated to have infected one third of the human population (2). Not only does Toxoplasmosis infect humans, but it is also been found in almost all of the warm-blooded animals, primarily cats (3). Toxoplasmosis was first found in 1908 by Nicolle and Manceaux in the cells of the gundi, a type of rodent, in Brazil. It was also found by Splendore to be in the tissues of a rabbit. Fifteen years later, in 1923, a fatal case of toxoplasmosis was reported in a child. Finally in 1939, toxoplasmosis was identified as a cause of human disease (2). Toxoplasmosis seemed to first be described by Toxoplasmosis is caused by a parasite called Toxoplasma gondii. Toxoplasma gondii has two   types of hosts, a definitive and an intermediate. Cats are the only definitive hosts for Toxoplasma gondii meaning that only when the parasite infects the cat will it produce oocysts (eggs). Toxoplasma gondii will not produce eggs in other warm-blooded animals. When the cat digests food that contains this parasite, the Toxoplasma gondii inside of the cat will be released into the digestive tract where it will then multiply and produce oocysts in the small intestine. This process is called intraintestinal infection cycle. The parasite is released in large quantities through the feces. The cat will also start shedding oocysts after 3 days of being infected and will continue to shed for 10 to 14 days. T he oocysts are very resilient and can survive up to a year. Other oocysts in the cat penetrate deeper into the intestine and develop tachyzoite which is the parasite’s form of rapid growth. The tachyzoite spreads throughout the body and start the extraintestinal infection cycle. When the immune system responds, the tachyzoite go into their resting stage and become bradyzoites, which is a slow growing form (3). A human or any other intermediate host can then be exposed to the parasite through either eating meat contaminated with the parasite or accidently (or not) swallowing cat feces (1). The oocysts are not immediately infectious as they must first go through a process called sporulation which takes from one to five days. Once the sporulated oocysts are in the intermediate host, they develop tissue cysts which stay in the host for life (3). When Toxoplasma gondii enters the human host, tachyzoites begin to develop and infect various organs. The parasite then enters the brain and creates oocysts. It then establishes a â€Å"chronic infection† which taxes the immune system (4). Toxoplasmosis usually doesn’t show any for most people. Severe cases of toxoplasmosis usually develop in babies whose mother was infected by toxoplasmosis or by people with compromised immune systems such as people with HIV. Some people with mild cases of toxoplasmosis may exhibit flu-like symptoms with swollen nymph glands along with sore muscles for a month or more. However, the severe cases can cause individuals to develop encephalitis along with eye and other organ damage. Patients may begin to experience pain that is accompanied by a bright light along with reduced vision and redness of the eye (1). Toxoplasmosis 1 http://www.cdc.gov/parasites/toxoplasmosis/ 2 http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2704023/?tool=pubmed 3 http://www.vet.cornell.edu/fhc/brochures/toxo.html 4 http://schizophreniabulletin.oxfordjournals.org/content/33/3/745.full Penicillium chrysogenum 5 http://botit.botany.wisc.edu/toms_fungi/nov2003.html 6 http://www.biology.ed.ac.uk/research/groups/jdeacon/microbes/penicill.htm 7 http://bioweb.uwlax.edu/bio203/s2008/kitzmann_step/

Changes Kennedy brought to American Foreign Policy

Eisenhower believed that there could not be a military solution to Cold War problems and that America could to shape the world's destiny. He accepted limitations on America's role. Kennedy did not. The changes he brought to American Foreign Policy were active and bold. This contrasted Eisenhower passive and cautious approach. Kennedy sought to restore the prestige and primacy of the presidency. His recurring theme was â€Å"l think it is time for America to start moving again†, and his actions sought to reveal a dynamic militancy.He set to dramatically increase American strength including increasing the defense budget ($40 bill to $56 b†), and arms production (missile launchers, long range bombers, submarines, and CUBISM). This ignited the greatest arms race in the history of mankind. In hindsight we can now see that the more missiles America built, the less secure the country was. However, his changes extended far beyond nuclear delivery weapons. Kennedy wanted to Incre ase America's conventional war capableness and guerrilla warfare forces. Unlike Eisenhower, he wanted the ability to intervene anywhere; this new strategy was called flexible response. The Third World provided the key to Kennedy's new American Frontiers. He wanted to be able to respond to Communist aggression at any level and set out to build a interdependency force that could stamp out revolutions in Third World countries. The force came to be called the Green Berets, and its aim was to apply American techniques and know-how in guerrilla warfare situations to solve the problems of national liberation.Its greatest appeal was that It avoided direct confrontation with the Soviet Union. Vietnam was an Ideal battleground for the Green Berets. The US Increased economic and military aid In South Vietnam. However under the SEATS Treaty the US was not able to get involved in a civil war. Kennedy was not willing to and opposition to the government came from within. He carted the removal of f orces through a coup of a South Viet leader that was not effective enough. America's active role in Vietnam was a culmination of the policy of containment rather than a military- industrial complex conspiracy.Kennedy also initiated the Alliance for Progress program. It was a significant aid program to Latin American countries, many of which were at the stage of authoritarian military dictatorships. These were the kind of friendships that the United States attempted to foster. Kennedy's commitment to be part of the new frontier was to combat third world liberation efforts. The USA wanted to ensure that there would be a degree of social and economic development. Through aid and investment, he believed that the Latin American countries would benefit.However, the Alliance was a failure primarily because there was significant underdevelopment and those who controlled the land, were the ones that benefited from such aid. Unlike Eisenhower, Kennedy initially believed that there was room fo r peaceful coexistence between the free capitalist world and communism. He attempted to compromise with the Soviet Union but when faced with aggression within Berlin, he returned to containment policies. Berlin was a problem for Kennedy. As a result of his foreign policy decisions, what had occurred was the emergence of a divided city by war.The Soviet building of the Wall and the eventual Western acceptance of it signified something about Kennedy's diplomacy. It indicated that the Germans did not want liberty and demonstrated that the intentions of the Soviet to push the West out of Berlin were firm. However, failure to do so lead his search for opportunity elsewhere. He found it Cuba. The issue of Cuba was something of a bear trap by departing Eisenhower. The United States had significant investments in Cuba. But it had undergone a revolution that was led effectively by Fidel Castro, who began to nationalism American properties.The American response under Eisenhower was to underta ke effective covert actions to sabotage Castro. The United States was determined to oust the Castro regime by training, organizing and equipping Cuban exiles in Guatemala and exporting them to the Bay of Pigs. This was an absolute disaster for the United States because Khrushchev saw this as an opportunity to place nuclear warheads close to the east coast of the United States. This crisis represented a direct threat to the United States.Rather than to listen to military advisors or the CIA (as had been done during the Bay of Pigs), Kennedy's response was to convene Coxcomb, an executive committee of national security counsel. The Committee initiated a minimalist naval blockade to prevent the Soviets from sending any further material into Cuba. This quarantine on all offensive military equipment then allowed Kennedy to warn the Soviet that any missile launched from Cuba would require a retaliatory response. Through meetings with Soviet official, a deal was made to remove Soviet missi les from Cuba. This was a satisfactory ending

Ap Bio Respiration Frq

40) Describe the structure of a mammalian respiratory system. Include in your discussion the mechanisms of inspiration and expiration. In mammals, oxygen first passes through the nasal cavity. The nasal cavity is covered with mucus and cicilia to filter the air. The nasal cavity leads to the pharynx. The pharynx consists of the eustachian tube and the tonsils. The inhaled air then passes to the larynx, trachea, and bronchi. The bronchi lead to the bronchioles in the lungs. In the lungs the pleural membrane facilitates breathing. The bronchioles end in microscopic alveoli lined by a thin, moist epithelium.The alveoli is the primary site of gas exchange. Branches of the pulmonary arteries send oxygen poor blood to the alveoli; branches of the pulmonary veins transport oxygen rich blood from the alveoli back to the heart. Inspiration (the process of inhaling) begins as the external intercostals and diaphragm contract. When this happens, the lungs expand. After this, negative pressure is used to facilitate respiration. So, air moves from an area of higher pressure, which is the air, to an area of lower pressure in the lungs and aveoli. During inspiration the diaphragm and intercostal muscles contract.The diaphragm moves downwards, while the intercostal muscles make the rib cage move upwards. These two processes increase the volume of the thoracic cavity and also reduces the air pressure to below atmospheric pressure allowing air to rush into the airways then into the alveoli. With expiration (the process of exhaling) the opposite occurs. Here, the diaphragm and intercostal muscles relax. This allows the diaphragm to move upwards and the intercostal muscles let the rib cage relax to its resting state. This concept is called passive recoil.After passive recoil occurs, the volume within the thoracic cavity now decreases. This decrease in volume causes an increase in pressure above atmospheric pressure which forces air up and out the airway. In mammals, a large part pa rt of the process of respiration is controlled neurally through the medulla oblongata. The medulla contains the cardiac, respiratory, vomiting and vasomotor centers and deals with autonomic, involuntary functions, such as breathing, heart rate and blood pressure. The main centers in the medula that control respiration are the inspiratory and expiratory center. 3) Discuss the processes of exchange of O2 and CO2 that occur at the alveoli and muscle cells of mammals. Include in your answer a description of the transport of these gasses in the blood. The aveoli is very important to respiration. The aveoli needs to be efficient in obtaining oxygen as the air is approximately 20% oxygen. The aveoli are small, thinly-walled, sacs of air made out of collagen and elastic fibers. It is lined by a thin, moist epithelium, which allows for easy expansion. In respiration, first the lungs are ventilated to maintain their concentration gradient, which draws in fresh air with a higher concentration of O2.The air then fills the alveoli, which are completely surrounded by many blood capillaries in order to maintain a short diffusion distance for the O2 to diffuse in, and the CO2 to diffuse out, so both bring down the concentration gradients. The blood then carries the Oxygen away, and cycles the CO2 back, maintaining a strong concentration gradient, helping to raise the diffusion rates. It is by this mechanism that mammals are able to maintain respiration in all the cells of their body. The concentration discussed above is crucial to gas exchange because it allows osmosis and diffusion to take place.To further facilitate diffusion the surface of the aveoli is moist. Eventually, the oxygen diffuses from the capillaries into the interstitial fluid to be taken up by the cells. At the same time, carbon dioxide diffuses from the interstitial fluid into the capillaries. The oxygen can also be stored in myoglobin, which can be found in muscles. Some CO2 will be present in plasma. This lowers the pH of blood. The levels of dissolved oxygen in the blood are usually 100 mm Hg in the lungs, 40 mm Hg in the muscles during rest, and 20 mm Hg in the muscles during exercise.The oxygen in the aveoli is carried by hemoglobin or in red blood cells. Hemoglobin can be found in red blood cells themselves. The transportation of hemoglobin and oxygen uses cooperation. The cooperation is allosteric. Once oxygen attaches to it, more oxygen molecules attach easily. The opposite occurs when hemoglobin looses one oxygen molecule. The graph of this relationship would be an s-shaped curve. But, both carbon monoxide and oxygen compete to be able to get to the binding site on hemoglobin. Most carbon dioxide is carried as bicarbonate ions (HCO3).The enzyme carbonic anhydrase speeds up reactions and lets the carbon dioxide dissolve more easily. If the CO2 is not dissolved by an aqueous solution, some of it can be carried by hemoglobin. The hemoglobin carries the CO2 at a different site so it doesn’t compete with the O2. When the CO2 starts out at the alveolus, it first goes to the pulmonary vein, then the left atrium, the left ventricle, the artery, the capillary, and finally the CO2 gets to the muscle cells. If the CO2 travels from the muscles cells to the alveolus, the same process occurs in reverse. 4) Many physiological changes occur during exercise. -Design a controlled experiment to test the hypothesis that an exercise session causes short term increases in the heart rate and breathing rate in humans. -Explain how at least three organ systems are affected by the increased physical activity and discuss interactions among these systems. a. An experiment to test this: First, you would need at least 10 people to participate in the experiment. The bigger the data pool, the more reliable your results will be. You would just need a stopwatch for this experiment.First, you would measure the heart rate and respiration rate of all the participants. The heart rate would be measured by feeling the pulse of the person by touching their neck. The number of beats felt in one minute is multiplied by 10 to obtain the heart rate. To obtain the respiration rate, simply count the amount of times the person's chest cavity rises and falls during breathing. This data of the participants at rest would serve as the control. The experimental data would come from the participants during exercise.So, afterward all the participants would be instructed to run along the some course for about 5 minutes. They would run at a moderate jogging speed. When the 5 minutes are up, the heart rate and breathing would be recorded the same way as before. Then, immediately after the data is recorded, the runners would run for another 15 minutes. The data would be recorded the same way immediately afterward. After the data is recorded, the runners would take a 30 minute rest in order to return to a homeostatic condition. After the rest, the heart rate and respiration rate woul d be recorded yet again.If the hypothesis is true, the heart rate and respiration rate should be higher when the participants were exercising. After the rest, the participants should be back to normal. b. – Circulatory System: First of all, the heart in creases the stroke volume (SV). The stroke volume is the volume of blood pumped from one ventricle of the heart with each beat. Then, the body increases the rate of blood circulation to carry oxygen and nutrients to working muscle cells. The increased flow also carries excess CO2 out of the body. So, the cardiac output increases and the blood pressure increases as well.To cause heat loss during exercise, the capillary beds that go to the skin dilate. – Respiratory System: During exercise there is an increased gas exchange between CO2 and O2. This is needed so a lot more oxygen (O2) can travel to the cells and be used as energy. Also, the increased rate of respiration helps expel the extra CO2 that is produced by the mus cle cells. The increased blood circulation during exercise causes the lungs to adapt by recruiting extra capillaries to carry the increased output of the heart, further increasing the quantity of blood in the lung.This means that the diffusion capacity of the lungs is also affected. – Digestive System: During exercise, the digestive system immediately increases the rate of glycogenolysis. During glycogenolysis there is an increased rate of digestion in the body to break down the carbohydrates into glucose. Cellular respiration uses the glucose to increase the production of ATP. The digestive system also diverts blood away from splanchnic renal areas, where it is not needed much. All these processes help provide fuel and energy for physical activity.

City of Granston Study Case Essay

1 What evidence exists in this case of potential supplier collusion? The evidence that exists in the case of potential supplier collusion is that each chose to bit only on certain types of aggregates, which is very suspicious and raises further concern. 2 How does a purchaser know he or she is getting a fair price in a bid situation? Awareness of the many cost components that lead to a target cost and market price is an essential requirement for the procurer who wishes to assess whether the person is getting good value 3 Why would suppliers voluntarily lower prices on a fixed price contract? This again shows signs of collusion, but in this case we can also read that since there were a slump in the local construction industry, they lowered their prices to keep business and renew contract with their current buyer. 4 Is it reasonable to adjust price based on a general inflation index? I think is reasonable to create a contract where the supplier adjusts their price based on a general inflation index. I think if helps the supplier to generate revenue, generate work and keep a fair price for the buyer where the inflation rate keeps rising. 5 How should the performance of a public buying office be measured? Cost saving generated Increased quality Purchasing improvements Price effectiveness

J & J Automotive Sales Essay

Replicate business and referrals from pleased clients are fundamental to success in selling. The longer you work in sales as a professional person committed to treating your customers right, the higher and higher will be the proportion of your business emanating from repeat business and customer referrals. By contrast, think about the stereotype of the person we would generally consider the antithesis of professionalism in selling, the used-car salesperson. Of course, there may be some used-car salespersons out there that are professional businesspeople, but by and large their reputation is not exemplary. The reason? We believe it has a lot top do with the fact that the person selling in the used-car lot sees the prospect as an opportunity for a one-time transaction. Seldom will a customer return to that same used-car lot for a repeat purchase, and the used-car dealer virtually never has service facilities for developing an ongoing relationship after the sale. Used-car buyers rarely refer friends and colleagues to the dealer they bought from. When they do, it’s because of the availability of a particular vehicle rather than the dealership per se. Compare that with successful new-car dealership, especially those at the high end, who want you as a long-term customer that will refer friends and colleagues to the store and its salespeople. If you’ve ever dealt with a dealership like that, you’ve enjoyed a personal relationship with your salesperson and the service department reps, which is well worth paying for. You’d certainly agree that your salesperson does not fit the stereotype of a used-car salesperson. It’s just one illustration of a business which appreciates the fact that its survival is contingent upon repeat business and customer referrals. Joe luckily has good dealing relationships with his customers which is a good start in countering this stereotype. Not only must he be aware of the features associated with a variety of models, he must also be familiar with mileage, modifications, rebuilds, and the quirks of each car on the lot. As such, he could work against the stereotype as a slick con artist looking to make a quick buck. Part of this, may be due to the larger commissions used car salespeople like Joe make on each sale, thus encouraging them to complete as many sales possible. While stereotypes abound regarding used car dealerships, it is unfair to cast a negative light on the entire used car industry. The bonded dealers behave like other principals; some are up front and cooperative; others disappear or simply refuse to cooperate. Now while you consider you have seen and heard it all, a new claim presents novel and astonishing facts. For example, you are looking for a second-hand care and Joe activates your stereotype of ‘used-car dealer’. However, the car looks quite good buy. Is he lying to you or is he offering a good deal? If additional information seems to fit your initial judgment then you have category confirmation. You are confirmed, in your view of the salesman and leave it at that. If, however, the category is not confirmed, then you engage in re-categorization, and attempt to find a category that is a better fit – maybe the Joe is re-categorized as ‘helpful assistant,’ who sold cars honestly. Since Joe has this characteristics of passion in cars and the sincere concern to his customers, having this kind of stereotype would not hinder him from obtaining good customers, because he will, of course, gain their trust and as such, would gain good relationship with them. As a customer on the other hand, having Joe as a salesperson of used cars, I would definitely come back to him and get another good deal in buying his cars. The stereotype wouldn’t definitely affect my relationship with Joe as his customer and surely would come back for another deal. AutoNation created a huge business by exploiting the public’s perception of used-car dealers. Middle-volume dealerships with less expensive cars try to increase sales volume by getting uncertain customers the larger dealers ignore. They track sales workers to make sure they follow a prescribed script with customers. Smaller suburban dealerships also concentrate on uncertain customers but some also give special services like loaner cars and pick-up and delivery service in hopes of repeat and referral business. Reference: Kimball, Bob, and Jerold Hall. Selling in the New World of Business. Binghamton, New York: Haworth Press, 2004.

EU LAW Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

EU LAW - Essay Example Article 18(1) of the E.C. Treaty provides that every citizen can move and reside freely in any part of the E.U. Article 39 (1) provides for free movement of workers. Article 43 provides for freedom of establishment by which individuals can get self employed. Article 49 gives freedom to provide and receive service in any part of the E.U.1. Citizens are bound by the law of the European Union and decision of the European Union Court of Justice is final. The individuals and Government officials should consult the legislation relating to the European parliament which represents people of Europe, the Council of the European Union which represents national governments of member states, and the European Commission that takes care of the common interest of the E.U. The Sarbotinians should exercise their votes in European Parliament elections. Some of the benefits that Sarbotinians can enjoy because of this membership in the EU are that they can travel across EU regions without passports and border checks. They can buy goods of their choice in any other member state where they may get at cheaper prices without custom duties. The single currency Euro makes it easier for all EU members to travel in any part of EU without having to convert it to local currency. Austria, Belgium, Cyprus, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Ireland, Italy, Luxemburg, Malta, the Netherlands, Portugal, Slovakia, Slovenia and Spain are already using Euro even for their local transactions. Hereafter it will be a single market without frontiers for member states thus intensifying competition and ensuring the highest possible quality for goods and services at the lowest possible prices. As per ascension treaty, there can be restrictions on work in other member states for new Sarbotinians between January 2010 and December 2015 but they will be phased o ut gradually. While the U.K.,

Analysis of the problem of Employees stress in the work place Essay

Analysis of the problem of Employees stress in the work place - Essay Example This paper briefly analyses the causes, effects and solutions for employee stress at workplace. According to Dale Collie (2004), the major reasons for employee stress at workplace are due to the lack of; control, communication, appreciation, feedbacks (good or bad), clarity in policies, clarity in career prospects etc. He also pointed out mistrust, unfairness, office politics, uncertainties, random interruptions, treadmill syndrome (a state of too much or too little to do) etc as the other major factors which can cause stress at workplace (Collie, 2004). Current organizations are functioning at a rapid pace and in most of the times; these organizations fail to communicate properly with the employees. Lack of communication may often results in the development of ambiguity among the employees about their responsibilities, career prospects, organizational policies etc. Sometimes the employees may have too much workload whereas some other times they may have less workload. Too much workload may result in fear of failures which may increase the stress. On the other hand, less workl oad may also develop stress because of the concerns of the security of the employment. Imtiaz and Ahmad (n. d) have mentioned that â€Å"higher level of stress existed with no managerial concern for solution consequently lowering the employee performance; staking organizational reputation and loss of skilled employees† (Imtiaz and Ahmad, n. d, p.1). It is difficult to avoid stress completely; but it is possible to reduce it. Too much employee stress is not good either to the employer or to the employee. The employee may loss his productivity because of too much stress. Moreover, too much stress can cause physical and psychological problems to the employees. Stress can increase the blood pressure which can lead to heart problems, stroke, paralyzing etc. It can also cause psychological problems like depression, anxiety,

Project management Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words - 2

Project management - Research Paper Example cusses the history of project management, its significance in the contemporary age, some of the obstacles that project managers commonly face in their work and the functions of project management. â€Å"Project management is the science (and art) of organizing the components of a project, whether the project is development of a new product, the launch of a new service, a marketing campaign, or a wedding† (MPUG, 2011). Project management, as the name implies, includes everything that is required to manage a project. A project is a one time endeavor. It is unique. Some people confuse the definition of project with that of process. The former is unique and non-repetitive whereas the latter is repetitive in nature. According to Lewis (2002), projects have been managed for thousands of years, yet it has been identified as an entirely separate disciple all over the world in the last ten years. This tells how short the history of project management is. The claim of Lewis (2002) has been reinforced with the support of Azzopardi (2009), though Azzopardi (2009) dates the development of project management of tools in organizations to the mid of 1950s. ‘Project Management’ is an important topic because all organisations, large and small, are involved in implementing new undertakings as diverse as the development of a new product or service, or a public relations campaign. To keep ahead of their competitors, every organisation is faced with development of complex services and processes. These need cross-functional expertise in a given organisation. (Modesto and Tichapondwa, 2009, p. 15). Every project is different and has its own specifications. The risks and opportunities associated with every project are unique. Two projects may be of entirely same nature with the same project parties, location, and time, yet the two may call for entirely different patterns of management. This can be attributed to the difference of various internal and external factors arising in the